Kwa theka la zaka chikwi kuyambira ulendo woyamba wa Christopher Columbus wopita ku America, kusuta, kaya omenyera nkhondo akufuna kapena ayi, kwakhala gawo la chikhalidwe cha anthu. Anali pafupifupi wamilungu, adamenya naye nkhondo, ndipo kulimba mtima kwa malingaliro awa okha kumawonetsa kufunikira kwa kusuta pagulu.
Malingaliro akusuta sanakhalepo owongoka kwathunthu. Nthawi zina, amalimbikitsidwa, koma nthawi zambiri, amalangidwa chifukwa chosuta. Chilichonse chocheperako chinafika mgawo lachiwiri la 19th - koyambirira kwa zaka za zana la 20. Osuta omwe amasuta, osasuta sanawone zovuta zambiri mu utsi. Iwo ankadziwa za kuopsa kwa kusuta, koma moyenerera iwo ankawona vuto ili ngati vuto lalikulu kwambiri, poyerekeza ndi mamiliyoni a anthu omwe amafa pankhondo zapadziko lonse lapansi.
Ndipo kokha m'zaka zokhala ndi chuma cha theka lachiwiri la zaka makumi awiri ndi makumi awiri kunapezeka kuti mtundu wa anthu ulibe mdani amene amadedwa kuposa kusuta. Izi zitha kuchitika potengera kusanthula kwa zochita za maboma osiyanasiyana m'maiko osiyanasiyana pokhudzana ndi kusuta ndi osuta. Wina amakhala ndi lingaliro kuti ngati olamulira, kaya ali kumanja kapena kumanzere, okonda kukonda dziko lawo kapena mabungwe akunja, sanasokonezedwe ndi mavuto ena, dziko lapansi likadakhala likuwona yankho lomaliza la funso la osuta.
1. Kusuta kulibe vuto lililonse. Komanso, popanda zikhalidwe zilizonse, munthu ayenera kuvomereza ndi zomwe adalemba kuti madera osuta ayenera kusiyanitsidwa ndi unyinji wa omwe samasuta. Ponena za ena onse, mayiko ndi malingaliro a anthu sayenera kukhala ngati olanda, kukwapula osuta ndi dzanja limodzi ndikupeza ndalama zomwe amalandila chifukwa chogwiritsa ntchito chizolowezichi ndi chimzake. Mafumu omwe adalanga osuta ndi imfa adachita moona mtima ...
2. Herodotus analemba za zitsamba zina, zomwe Aselote ndi a Gauls ankasuta ndi chisangalalo chachikulu, koma munthu wolemekezekayo adatisiyira umboni wambiri kuti ndizosatheka kumvetsetsa chowonadi chawo ngakhale zitadutsa zaka masauzande. Tsiku lovomerezeka la "kupezeka" kwa fodya ndi azungu lingaganizidwe Novembala 15, 1492. Patsikuli, a Christopher Columbus, omwe adazindikira ku America mwezi wapitawo popita ku India, adalemba muzolemba zawo kuti anthu akumalowo amayendetsa masamba a chomera mu chubu, ndikuyatsa moto kuchokera mbali imodzi ndikupumira utsi kuchokera mbali inayo. Anthu osachepera awiri ochokera ku Columbus - Rodrigo de Jerez ndi Luis de Torres - adayamba kusuta kale ku New World. Pogwiritsa ntchito kuti mayendedwe a fodya anali asanaperekedwe misonkho, de Jerez adabweretsa masamba a chomera ku Europe. Komanso, mbiri yake inasandulika nthano - anthu amtundu wina, powona kuti de A Jerez amaphulika utsi mkamwa mwake, adamuwona ngati chinjoka, wobadwa ndi mdierekezi. Akuluakulu a tchalitchi adadziwitsidwa za izi, ndipo wosuta wopanda pakeyo adakhala zaka zingapo mndende.
3. Ziwerengero zofalitsa zakumwa kwa ndudu m'maiko osiyanasiyana padziko lapansi zimangopereka lingaliro lokhudza komwe anthu amasuta kwambiri komanso komwe amasutirako. Vuto sikuti ziwerengero ndi amodzi mwamitundu yabodza, koma kusiyana kwa malamulo m'maiko osiyanasiyana. Ku Andorra yaying'ono, kugulitsa kwa fodya sikulipiridwa misonkho, chifukwa ndudu ndizotsika mtengo kwambiri kuposa zomwe zimayandikana ndi Spain ndi France. Chifukwa chake, aku Spain ndi aku France amapita ku Andorra kusuta ndudu, kukweza kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa fodya mdziko lino laling'ono mpaka mapaketi 320 osaganizirika pachaka chimodzi, kuwerengera ana obadwa kumene. Chithunzicho ndi chimodzimodzi ku Luxembourg chokulirapo pang'ono. Kwa China, zidziwitso m'malo osiyanasiyana zimatha kusiyanasiyana kawiri - mwina mapaketi 200 amasuta kumeneko chaka, kapena 100. Mwambiri, ngati simukumbukira Nauru ndi Kiribati, okhala kumayiko a Balkan, Greece, Czech Republic amasuta kwambiri. Poland, Belarus, China, Ukraine, Belgium ndi Denmark. Russia ndi yomwe ili pamwamba pa mndandanda uliwonse, ikukhala malo kuyambira 5 mpaka 10. Pali osuta pafupifupi biliyoni imodzi padziko lapansi.
4. Kunenezedwa kwa Columbus kuti adabweretsa mankhwala ku hello ku Europe ndikunyengerera anthu okhala ku Old World, omwe samadziwa fodya kale, kulibe maziko. Ndikulakwa kuimba mlandu a Jerez chifukwa cha izi (de Torres adatsalira ku America ndipo adaphedwa ndi amwenye), koma hidalgo wolemekezekayu adangobweretsa masamba okha ku Spain. Mbewuzo zinabweretsedwa koyamba ndi a Gonzalo Oviedo, kapena a Romano Pano, omwe nawonso adadutsa nyanja ndi Columbus. Zoona, Oviedo ankawona fodya ngati chomera chokongoletsera chokongola, ndipo Pano anali wotsimikiza kuti fodya amachiza mabala, palibe kukambirana za kusuta.
5. Ku France, kwa zaka zopitilira theka, fodya sanasute, koma amangokhala fumbi ndi kununkhiza. Komanso, Catherine de Medici adaphunzitsa mwana wake wamwamuna, Charles IX wamtsogolo, kununkhiza fodya ngati mankhwala - kalonga adadwala mutu. Kupitilira apo zikuwonekeratu: fumbi la fodya adalitcha "ufa wa Mfumukazi" ndipo patadutsa miyezi ingapo bwalo lonse lidayamba kununkhiza fodya ndikusefukira. Ndipo adayamba kusuta ku France pomwe owalimbikitsa a St. Bartholomew's Night, kapena Charles IX anali amoyo, motsogozedwa ndi Kadinala Richelieu ndi Louis XIII.
6. Kwa nthawi yoyamba, kukulunga fodya wodulidwa bwino papepala kunayamba m'zaka za zana la 17 ku South America. Umu ndi momwe anthu ojambula pazithunzi zingapo za Francisco Goya amasuta. Kugulitsa ndudu zopangidwa ndi manja kunayamba ku France mu 1832. Mu 1846 Juan Adorno anapatsa patenti makina oyamba opanga ndudu ku Mexico. Komabe, kusinthaku kunachitika pa cholembera cha Adorno, ndikupanga kwa James Bonsak, komwe kunapangidwa mu 1880. Makina olembera a Bonsak awonjezera zokolola pantchito m'mafakitare a fodya maulendo 100. Koma kusuta fodya kwa ndudu zopangidwa ndendende kunayamba m'ma 1930. Izi zisanachitike, anthu olemera ankakonda kusuta mapaipi kapena ndudu; anthu, mophweka, ankadzimangirira okha fodya pamapepala, nthawi zambiri m'nyuzipepala.
7. Ku Victorian England, nthawi yomwe Sherlock Holmes amasunga fodya wake mu nsapato yaku Persia ndikusuta fodya watsala dzulo asanadye chakudya cham'mawa, kusuta kunali chinthu chofunikira kwambiri pakampani iliyonse yamwamuna. Akuluakulu m'makalabu amalankhulana m'malo apadera osuta. Ena mwa maguluwa, kuphatikiza ndudu, fodya ndi ndudu, zimakhala ndi zinthu 100. M'malo onse omwera mowa ndi m'mahawa, aliyense amatha kupeza chitoliro kwaulere. Tobacco Review inanena kuti mu 1892, anthu ambiri amene anali kumwa anali kupereka mapaipi pakati pa 11,500 ndi 14,500 pachaka.
8. General (waku Britain waku Britain) General Israel Putnam (1718 - 1790) amadziwika makamaka chifukwa chopulumutsidwa mozizwitsa kuchokera m'manja mwa amwenye omwe anali akukonzekera kale kuti amuwotche, komanso kuti, zikuwoneka, adapha nkhandwe yomaliza ku Connecticut. Mfundo ina yosangalatsa ya mbiri ya msilikali wolimba mtima wotsutsana ndi adani aliwonse nthawi zambiri imakhala mumithunzi. Mu 1762, asitikali aku Britain adalanda Cuba. Cholowa cha Putnam chinali chotumiza ndudu za Cuba. Msirikali wolimba mtima sanachite manyazi ndi zomwe nzika zake zimapeza ndipo anali ndi malo omwera mowa ku Connecticut. Kudzera mwa iye, adagulitsa zonunkhira pachilumbachi, ndikupeza ndalama zambiri. A Yankees adazindikira kuti ndudu zaku Cuba ndizabwino kwambiri, ndipo kuyambira pamenepo zoyambirira za ndudu za Cuba sizinatsutsidwe.
9. Ku Russia, ntchito yaboma yolima ndikugulitsa fodya idayamba pa Marichi 14, 1763. Khansala wa State Grigory Teplov, yemwe Mfumukazi Catherine II adamupatsa chisamaliro cha fodya, amadziwa bizinesi yake ndipo anali munthu wodalirika. Pa kuyambitsa kwake, olima fodya osati koyamba kokha anamasulidwa misonkho ndi ntchito, komanso adalandira mabhonasi ndi mbewu zaulere. Pansi pa Teplov, fodya wolowetsedwa kunja adayamba kugulidwa mwachindunji, osati kuchokera kwa azungu.
10. Indonesia ndi m'modzi mwa atsogoleri mdziko lapansi potengera kuchuluka kwa osuta komanso kuchuluka kwa zinthu zomwe zimagulitsidwa. Komabe, msika waukuluwu (anthu aku Indonesia - 266 miliyoni) msika wazaka zingapo kumapeto kwa zaka za makumi awiri ndi awiri unayamba kupezeka kwa zimphona zapadziko lonse lapansi. Izi sizinachitike chifukwa chodzitchinjiriza kwa boma, koma chifukwa cha kutchuka kwa kaphatikizidwe kake ka fodya. Anthu aku Indonesia adula ma clove odulidwa ku fodya. Kusakanikirana kumeneku kumawotcha ndi vuto linalake, ndipo kumatchedwa mawu a onomatopoeic "kretek". Kuwonjezera kwa ma clove ku fodya kumathandiza kwambiri pamtunda. Ku Indonesia, komwe kuli kotentha, anthu mamiliyoni makumi ambiri ali ndi vuto la kupuma, ndichifukwa chake kretek ndi yotchuka kuyambira pomwe idapangidwa mu 1880. Kwa zaka zambiri, ndudu zopangidwa ndi ma clove zimapangidwa ndi manja, zinali zodula ndipo sizimatha kupikisana ndi makina opanga ndudu wamba. Mu 1968, boma la Indonesia lidalola kupanga kretek wopanga makina, ndipo zidangotenga zaka zochepa kuti zotsatira. Mu 1974 ndudu zoyamba zopangidwa ndi kretek zidapangidwa. Mu 1985, kupanga ndudu za ma clove kunayamba kupanga ndudu wamba, ndipo tsopano kretek ili pamisika yopitilira 90% ya msika waku Indonesia ku Indonesia.
11. Ku Japan, kupanga fodya kumayang'aniridwa ndi kampani yaboma Japan Fodya. Bajeti yamagawo onse amasangalatsidwa ndi misonkho yogulitsa ndudu, chifukwa chake, komanso zotsutsana ndi zotsutsana ndi fodya ku Japan, kutsatsa ndudu kumaloledwanso, koma modekha kwambiri komanso mozungulira. Sikuti ndi mtundu wa zopangidwa mwinanso zotsatsa za fodya zomwe zimalengezedwa, koma "kusuta koyera" - njira yoyendetsedwa yosangalalira chifukwa chosuta, pomwe wosuta samabweretsa chisokonezo kwa anthu ena. Makamaka, mu imodzi mwamalonda apawailesi yakanema, ngwaziyo imafuna kusuta ikudikirira sitimayi pasiteshoni. Komabe, atakhala pa benchi ya osuta, akuwona kuti bambo yemwe wakhala pampando womwewo akudya. Msirikaliyo nthawi yomweyo amaika ndudu mthumba mwake, ndikuwunikira pokhapokha mnansi atawonetsa kuti alibe nazo vuto. Patsamba la Japan Fodya, gawo la Zauzimu Za Fodya limalemba milandu 29 yogwiritsira ntchito fodya: Fodya Wachikondi, Fodya Wochezeka, Fodya yomwe imabweretsa chilengedwe pafupi, Fodya Wanu, Fodya Woganiza, ndi zina zambiri. Magawowa apangidwa ngati zokambirana zomwe zimatsindika kuti kusuta ndi gawo la miyambo yaku Japan.
12. Opanga ndudu ndi ndudu zaku Russia adadziwika pakati pa opanga zinthu zina ndi luso lawo lapadera. M'nthawi ino yopanga zinthu zambiri, kuyesetsa kwawo kuti zinthu zizigwirizana ndi nthawi komanso zofuna za wogula zimakhudza kwambiri. Mu 1891, gulu lankhondo laku France lidalowa ku St. Petersburg, ndipo omwe akufuna kuchita chikumbutso chaulendowu atha kugula ndudu zaku Franco-Russia zomwe zili ndi chithunzi ndi chidziwitso chofananira. Ndudu zingapo zidapangidwa kumapeto kwa ntchito yomanga njanji, kupambana kwa asitikali (ndudu za Skobelevskie) ndi zochitika zina zazikulu.
13. Misonkho ya Draconia inali imodzi mwazifukwa zosinthira ku France. Anthu wamba aku France adalipira misonkho pafupifupi kawiri kuposa mnzake waku England. Chimodzi mwazofunikira kwambiri ndi msonkho wa kusuta fodya. Pambuyo pa kusinthaku, idachotsedwa koyamba kenako ndikubwezeretsanso, koma pang'ono pang'ono. Poterepa, gudumu la mbiri lidasinthiratu zaka 20 zokha. Napoleon Bonaparte, yemwe adayamba kulamulira, adachulukitsa misonkho ya fodya kwambiri kotero kuti osuta adakhala ndalama zazikulu mu bajeti yaku France.
14. Zokwanira zalembedwa zaulendo wotchuka wa Peter I kupita ku Europe kuti apeze, ngati angafune, zomwe tsar yaku Russia idagula kunja, ngakhale m'mitundu imodzi. Gwero la ndalama zogulira izi silidziwika kwenikweni - Peter adagwiritsa ntchito ndalama zake mwachangu, ndipo ku England adagula chilichonse pangongole. Koma pa Epulo 16, 1698, mvula yagolide idagwera nthumwi zaku Russia. Tsar idasainirana mgwirizano ndi Mngelezi Marquis Carmarthen kuti aperekere fodya ku Russia kwa ma ruble a siliva 400,000. Carmarthen adalipira ndalama zambiri, anthu aku Russia adagawa ngongole zonse ndikuyamba kugula zatsopano.
15. Chakumapeto kwa zaka za zana la 19 ndi koyambirira kwa zaka za zana la 20, mabuku onena za kusuta ndi fodya anali otchuka kwambiri, osindikizidwa m'mitundu yawo yoyambirira - phukusi la ndudu, bokosi la ndudu, ndi thumba lolumikizidwa, phukusi lokulunga kapena chitoliro. Mabuku oterewa amafalitsidwa masiku ano, koma tsopano ndi chidwi chongopeka.
16.Wotchuka kwambiri padziko lonse lapansi wa cinema Marlene Dietrich adatanthauzira molondola chithunzi cha mkazi wosuta-wolamulira wazamwamuna yemwe kale mu 1950, pomwe mtsikanayo anali ndi zaka 49, adasankhidwa kukhala wotsatsa wotsatsa "Lucky Strike". Zonena kuti kuyambira pomwe adachita bwino kanema, Dietrich sanajambulidwepo popanda ndudu sizinatsutsidwebe.
17. Bambo wa mabodza osakanikirana a ndudu ku United States anali mphwake wa Sigmund Freud. Edward Bernays adabadwa mu 1899 ndipo adakali wamng'ono adasamukira ku United States ndi makolo ake. Apa adatenga sayansi yatsopano yolumikizana ndi anthu. Atalowa nawo American Fodya ngati mlangizi wothandiza anthu, a Bernays adatenga njira yatsopano yolimbikitsira malonda. Adafunsira kuchoka pamalonda "akutsogolo" kupita kukwezedwa ngati akudutsa, mwamwayi. Mwachitsanzo, ndudu iyenera kulengezedwa osati ngati chinthu chabwino chomwe chimakwaniritsa ntchito yake, koma ngati gawo la fano limodzi kapena lina. Bernays adayambanso kufalitsa nkhani "yodziyimira payokha" munyuzipepala yonena za kuopsa kwa shuga (ndudu ziyenera kulowa m'malo mwa maswiti), za momwe akazi owonda, owonda amapezera amayi onenepa kwambiri pantchito yomweyo (ndudu zimathandizira kuti azikhala oyenera), za phindu la kudziletsa, ndi zina zambiri. Pozindikira kuti azimayi amasuta pang'ono mumsewu komanso m'malo wamba, a Bernays adakonza gulu la atsikana omwe ali ndi ndudu ku New York pa Pasaka 1929. Kuphatikiza apo, gululi silinali kuwoneka mwadongosolo. Bernays adalembanso nkhani yonse yokhudza ndudu mu cinema ndikuitumiza kwa opanga akulu. Kaya malisiti aliwonse adalumikizidwa ndi ntchito ya Bernays sakudziwika, koma m'ma 1940, nduduyo idakhala chinthu chofunikira kwambiri kwa protagonist wa kanema aliyense.
18. Atolankhani akuti waku America yemwe ali ndi khansa yam'mapapo walamula madola mabiliyoni ambiri kuchokera ku kampani ya fodya kuyenera kuwayikira. Malipoti otere nthawi zambiri amabwera pambuyo poti makhothi oyamba atha. Pamenepo, wodandaula atha kupeza chigamulo chomwe chimamuyenerera kuchokera ku khothi. Komabe, kuweruza sikumathera pamenepo - makhothi apamwamba nthawi zambiri amawunikiranso zomwe amasankha kapena amachepetsa kwambiri kuchuluka kwa chipukuta misozi. Wodandaula ndi kampaniyo atha kufikira kukhothi, pambuyo pake odandaulawo amalandila ndalama, koma zopanda pake. Zitsanzo zenizeni zakuchepa kwa ndalama kuchoka pa makumi mabiliyoni angapo a madola kufikira mamiliyoni kapena ngakhale mazana masauzande. Kunena zowona, madola mabiliyoni azolipidwa amalipiridwa mu milandu ya "NN state motsutsana ndi kampani ya XX", koma chindapusa chotere ndi njira ina yowonjezera misonkho yomwe makampani amakampani a fodya amapereka.
19. Mbiri yaku Russia ya fodya imayamba pa Ogasiti 24, 1553. Patsiku losaiwalika, sitimayo "Edward Bonaventura", yomenyedwa ndi namondwe, monyadira adayesa kulowa mu Dvinsky Bay (tsopano ndi dera la Murmansk) motsogozedwa ndi Richard Chancellor. Anthu aku Russia adadabwa ndi sitima yayikulu chonchi. Kudabwitsidwa kwawo kudakulirakulira atamva kuti Ajeremani (ndi alendo onse ku Russia mpaka zaka za zana la 18 anali Ajeremani - anali osayankhula, samadziwa Chirasha) akupita ku India. Pang'ono ndi pang'ono, kusamvana konse kudathetsedwa, amithenga adatumizidwa ku Moscow, ndipo adayamba kutalikirana nthawiyo. Mwa katundu waku India, Chancellor analinso ndi fodya waku America, yemwe anthu aku Russia amakonda kulawa. Panthaŵi imodzimodziyo, sanasute ku England komabe - mu 1586 fodya sanabweretsedwe ndi aliyense, koma Sir Francis Drake.
20. Wopambana pa nkhani ya wolemba wachingelezi wotchuka Somerset Maugham "The Clerk" adathamangitsidwa mu Tchalitchi cha St.Zikuwoneka kuti moyo wake wagwa - mlembi anali munthu wolemekezeka kwambiri muulamuliro wa Tchalitchi cha Anglican, ndipo kulandidwa kwa malo otere ku Victorian England kunatanthauza kutsitsa kwakukulu kwa ulemu womwe anthu aku Britain anali nawo. Ngwazi ya Maugham, atasiya tchalitchicho, adaganiza zosuta (pokhala kalaliki, mwachibadwa sanachite izi). Posaona malo ogulitsira fodya, anaganiza zotsegula yekha. Atayamba bwino ntchito, mlembi wakale adatanganidwa kuyenda mozungulira London kufunafuna misewu yopanda malo ogulitsira fodya, ndipo nthawi yomweyo adadzaza malo. Pamapeto pake, adakhala mwini masitolo khumi ndi awiri komanso kukhala ndi akaunti yayikulu yakubanki. Manejala adamupatsa kuti adzaike ndalama pa dipositi yopindulitsa, koma wamalonda yemwe wangopangidwa kumeneyo adakana - samatha kuwerenga. "Ungakhale ndani iwe ukanakhoza kuwerenga?" - adafunsa mkuluyo. "Ndikadakhala mlembi wa Tchalitchi cha St. Peter," adayankha wogulitsa malonda wachuma uja.
21. Mafakitale amakono a fodya ali ndi makina kwambiri. Kufanana kwina kwa ntchito yodziyimira pawokha kumachitika kokha ndi oyendetsa katundu olanda katundu, omwe amaika mabokosi a fodya pamakina onyamula - nthawi yomweyo, fodya yemwe wabweretsedwamo "kuchokera pamawilo" sangachite, ayenera kugona pansi. Chifukwa chake, nthawi zambiri fakitale ya fodya imakhala ndi nyumba yosungiramo zinthu zochititsa chidwi yomwe imakhala ndi mabokosi okhala ndi fodya wosindikizidwa. Pambuyo poyika bokosilo pamakina onyamula, zonse zimagwira ntchito yogawa fodya kukhala zamkati ndi zamitsempha mpaka kulongedza ndudu m'mabokosi zimachitika ndimakina okhaokha.
22. Katswiri wodziwika bwino wa ku Russia komanso woweta mbewu ku Ivan Michurin anali wosuta kwambiri. Anali wodzichepetsa kwambiri m'moyo watsiku ndi tsiku - mwanjira inayake nthumwi ya Nicholas II, chifukwa cha zovala zake zoyera, adamuyesa ngati mlonda wamunda wa Michurinsky. Koma Michurin ankakonda fodya wapamwamba kwambiri. M'zaka za kuwonongedwa kwa pambuyo pa kusintha, panalibe mavuto apadera ndi fodya - panali nkhokwe zazikulu m'malo osungira. Chakumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1920, zinali zotheka kubwezeretsanso ntchito yopanga ndudu ndi ndudu, koma zochulukirapo - kunalibe fodya wabwino kwambiri. Michurin adayamba kulima fodya m'malo omwe anali asanakulireko, ndipo adachita bwino. Izi zafotokozedwa munkhani zingapo kuti Michurin adapereka gawo lanthaka ndikulima mitundu ya fodya. Kuphatikiza apo, Michurin adabwera ndimakina odulira fodya oyambilira, omwe anali odziwika kwambiri - osauka ku Russia ambiri amasuta samosad, omwe amayenera kudulidwa palokha.
