Chilankhulo ndicho chida choyamba komanso chovuta kwambiri chomwe munthu amagwiritsa ntchito. Ndicho chida chakale kwambiri, chosinthika kwambiri komanso chodziwika bwino chamunthu. Popanda chilankhulo, gulu laling'ono la anthu silingakhaleko, osatinso chitukuko chamakono. Nzosadabwitsa kuti olemba zopeka zasayansi omwe nthawi zina amayesa kulingalira momwe dziko lapansi likadakhalira popanda mphira, zitsulo, matabwa, ndi zina zambiri, sizimachitika kulingalira dziko lopanda chilankhulo - dziko lotere, pakumvetsetsa kwathu mawuwo, silingakhaleko.
Munthu amachita chidwi ndi zonse zomwe sizinalengedwe ndi iye (komanso zolengedwa). Chilankhulo ndichonso. Zachidziwikire, sitidzadziwa yemwe anali woyamba kuganiza za chifukwa chomwe timatcha mkate wa mkate, ndipo kwa aku Germany ndi "brot". Koma ndi chitukuko cha anthu, mafunso oterewa adayamba kufunsidwa pafupipafupi. Anthu ophunzira anayamba kuwaika, nthawi yomweyo kuyesera - kulingalira kwakanthawi - kuti apeze mayankho. Pakubwera zolemba zolembedwa, panali mpikisano, chifukwa chake kutsutsa, kuzindikira zoperewera za chilankhulo. Mwachitsanzo, A.S.Pushkin nthawi ina adayankha polemba kusanthula kwina kwa imodzi mwa ntchito zake, zomwe zinali ndi madandaulo 251.
Pa nthawi ya moyo wake, Pushkin nthawi zambiri ankatsutsidwa mopanda chifundo
Pang'onopang'ono, malamulo azilankhulo adasinthidwa, ndipo anthu omwe adagwira nawo ntchitoyi adayamba - nthawi zina patadutsa zaka zambiri - kutchedwa akatswiri azilankhulo. Kugawanika kwa ziyankhulo kunayikidwa pa sayansi ndi magawano, maphunziro, masukulu, madera komanso omwe amatsutsa. Ndipo zidapezeka kuti zilankhulo zitha kusiyanitsa chilankhulo mpaka ma molekyulu, koma sizinatheke kupanga dongosolo logwirizana ndikugawa magawo azilankhulozo pakadali pano.
1. Mbiri ya zilankhulo nthawi zina imayamba kutsogolera pafupifupi kuyambira nthawi yomwe mawonekedwe oyamba adalembedwera. Zachidziwikire, ngati sayansi, zilankhulo zinadzuka pambuyo pake. Mwachidziwikire, izi zidachitika mozungulira zaka za 5th-4 BC. e., pomwe ku Greece wakale adayamba kuphunzira zamatsenga. Njira yophunzirayi idaphatikizapo kuwerenga zolemba zamalankhulidwe osiyanasiyana ndikuzisanthula kuchokera pamalingaliro a kuwerenga, kalembedwe, zomangamanga. M'zaka za zana loyamba A.D. e. ku China kunali mndandanda wazolemba, zofananira ndi madikishonale aposachedwa, komanso magulu a nyimbo (koyambira kwamanema amakono). Maphunziro ochuluka azilankhulo adayamba kuwonekera m'zaka za zana la 16 - 17th.
2. Zolondola za sayansi ndizolondola zitha kuweruzidwa ndi zaka zambiri (ndipo zidatha) zokambirana zapadziko lonse lapansi pazokhudza malankhulidwe. Dzinalo lokhalo ndilo lokhalabe lolimba pokambirana. Ufulu wokhala ndi ziwalo zolankhulira unakanidwa kuzowerengera zowerengera komanso zowerengera komanso kutengera, kutenga nawo mbali kunalembedwa m'mawu omasulira, ndipo gerunds adakhala ziganizo. Mfalansa Joseph Vandries, yemwe akuwoneka kuti wataya mtima, adaganiza kuti pali magawo awiri okha olankhulira: dzina ndi verebu - sanapeze kusiyana kulikonse pakati pa dzina ndi dzina. Wolemba zilankhulo zaku Russia Alexander Peshkovsky anali wopanda malire - m'malingaliro ake, pali magawo anayi olankhula. Adawonjezeranso verebu ndi chilankhulo ku dzina ndi chiganizo. Academician Viktor Vinogradov adasankha magawo 8 olankhulira ndi ma 5 tinthu tating'ono. Ndipo izi sizili konse zochitika zamakedzana, zinali m'zaka za zana la makumi awiri. Pomaliza, Academic Grammar ya 1952-1954 imalankhula za magawo 10 olankhulira, ndipo mu galamala yomweyi ya kope la 1980 mulinso magawo khumi olankhulira. Kodi chowonadi chidabadwa mukutsutsana? Ngakhale zitakhala bwanji! Chiwerengero ndi mayina azigawo zimayenderana, koma unyinji wa mawu umayendayenda kuchokera pagawo lina kupita kwina kupita kwina.
3. Monga momwe sayansi iliyonse, zilankhulo zilili ndi magawo, pali magawo khumi ndi awiri, kuyambira ku zilankhulidwe zonse mpaka kulankhulidwe lamphamvu. Kuphatikiza apo, maphunziro angapo adachitika pamphambano ya zilankhulo ndi sayansi zina.
4. Pali chomwe chimatchedwa. zilankhulo zamasewera. Akuluakulu, akatswiri odziwa zilankhulo amaganiza kuti ndiomwe amachita izi ndipo nthawi zambiri amagwiritsa ntchito mawu oti "pseudoscientific". Otsatirawo amaona kuti malingaliro awo ndi okhawo olondola ndipo amaneneza akatswiri kuti amamatira kuziphunzitso zawo zachikale chifukwa cha maphunziro ndi maudindo. Maphunziro azilankhulo a Mikhail Zadornov atha kutengedwa ngati chitsanzo cha akatswiri azilankhulo. Akatswiri azilankhulo za Amateur amadziwika ndi kufunitsitsa kuyang'ana mizu yaku Russia m'mawu onse azilankhulo zonse. Komanso, mizu yofananira, mwachitsanzo, mayina amalo akale amatengedwa kuchokera ku Chirasha chamakono. “Chinyengo” chinanso chamaphunziro azamasewera ndi kusaka tanthawuzo zobisika, "zoyambirira" m'mawu.
Mikhail Zadornov m'zaka zomalizira za moyo wake anali atachita nawo zilankhulo zamasewera. London ndi "chifuwa cha Don"
5. Mwadongosolo la nthawi, nthumwi yoyamba yazolankhula zamasewera mwina anali Wophunzira Alexander Potebnya. Theorist wamkulu wa linguistics wa m'zaka za zana la 19, limodzi ndi ntchito zabwino kwambiri pa galamala ndi etymology ya mawu, anali wolemba ntchito momwe adamasulira momasuka zolinga zamakhalidwe ndi nthano. Kuphatikiza apo, Potebnya adalumikiza mawu oti "tsogolo" ndi "chisangalalo" ndi malingaliro achi Slavic onena za Mulungu. Tsopano ofufuza mokoma mtima amatchula wasayansiyo kuti ndi munthu wodabwitsa kwambiri chifukwa chongomulemekeza.
Alexander Potebnya adadzitenga ngati Russian Wamkulu, ndipo chilankhulo chaching'ono cha Russia chinali chilankhulo. Ku Ukraine, izi sizisokoneza aliyense, chifukwa Potebnya adagwira ntchito ku Kharkov, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti ndi waku Ukraine
6. Zomveka za chilankhulo zimaphunziridwa ndi mafoni. Izi nthawi zambiri zimakhala nthambi yopanga zinenero. Woyambitsa mafoni achi Russia amadziwika kuti ndi wasayansi wokhala ndi dzina lokongola lotchedwa Baudouin de Courtenay ku khutu laku Russia. Komabe, dzina la academician chachikulu anali kwenikweni mu Russian: Ivan Alexandrovich. Kuphatikiza pa mafoni, ankadziwa bwino mbali zina za Chirasha. Mwachitsanzo, pokonzekera buku latsopano lotanthauzira mawu a Dahl kuti lifalitsidwe, adayambitsa mawu amwano, omwe adatsutsidwa mopanda chifundo ndi anzawo - sanaganize zosintha zoterezi. Motsogoleredwa ndi Baudouin de Courtenay, sukulu yonse ya asayansi inagwira ntchito, yomwe idapondaponda kwambiri gawo la mafoni. Chifukwa chake, kuti azitha kupeza ndalama, asayansi amakono omwe akuphunzira zochitika zomveka mchilankhulo amayenera kulengeza mawu ngati "northA", "southA", "capacity", ndi zina zambiri, monga chizoloŵezi cha chilankhulo - anthu amagwira ntchito, amaphunzira.
7. Moyo wa IA Baudouin de Courtenay ndiwosangalatsa osati kokha chifukwa chothandizira kwambiri pazolankhula. Wasayansi anali wokangalika m'ndale. Adasankhidwa kukhala purezidenti wa palokha Poland. Zisankho, zomwe zidachitika mu 1922 m'magawo atatu, Baudouin de Courtenay adataya, koma zinali zabwino kwambiri - Purezidenti wosankhidwa a Gabriel Narutovich posachedwa adaphedwa.
I. Baudouin de Courtenay
8. Grammar imaphunzira mfundo zophatikizira mawu wina ndi mnzake. Buku loyamba pamalamulo achi Russia lidasindikizidwa ndi waku Germany Heinrich Ludolph mchilatini. Morphology imasanthula momwe mawuwo amasinthira kukhala "oyenera" ndi oyandikira. Momwe mawu amaphatikizidwira muzinthu zazikulu (ziganizo ndi ziganizo) amaphunzira malembedwe. Ndipo kalembedwe (kalembedwe), ngakhale nthawi zina kamatchedwa gawo la zilankhulo, ndi malamulo ovomerezeka. Zikhalidwe za galamala amakono azilankhulo zaku Russia zafotokozedwa ndikukhazikitsidwa mu mtundu wa 1980.
9. Lexicology imagwira tanthauzo la mawu ndi kuphatikiza kwake. Mkati mwa lexicology mumakhala zosachepera 7 "-logies", koma ma stylistics okha ndi omwe ali ndi tanthauzo m'moyo watsiku ndi tsiku. Gawoli likuwunikira matanthauzidwe - matanthauzidwe obisika, aposachedwa amawu. Wopanga ma stylistics aku Russia sadzatero - popanda zifukwa zomveka - kuyitana mkazi "nkhuku" kapena "nkhosa", chifukwa mu Chirasha mawu awa ali ndi tanthauzo loipa akagwiritsidwa ntchito kwa amayi - opusa, opusa. Wolemba masitayilo achi China amatchulanso mkazi kuti "nkhuku" pokhapokha ngati pakufunika kutero. Pochita izi, adzaganiza zaudindo wotsika wa omwe afotokozedwayo. "Nkhosa" mu Chitchaina ndi chizindikiro cha kukongola kwabwino. Mu 2007, mtsogoleri wa chigawo chimodzi ku Altai, kusadziwa stylistics, adawononga ma ruble 42,000. Pamsonkhanowo, adatcha mutu wa khonsolo yamudzimo "mbuzi" (chigamulochi chikuti: "imodzi mwazinyama za pafamuyi, yemwe dzina lake lili ndi tanthauzo lonyansa"). Lamulo la wamkulu wa khonsolo yamudzimo lidakhutira ndi bwalo lamilandu, ndipo wozunzidwayo adalandira chiphuphu cha 15,000 chifukwa cha kuwonongeka kwamakhalidwe, boma lidalandira chindapusa 20,000, ndipo khotilo lidakhutira ndi ma ruble 7,000 pamtengo.
10. Lexicology angatchedwe wachibale wosauka m'banja la nthambi za linguistics. Mafonetiki ndi galamala ali ndi achibale achikulire olimba omwe akukwera kwinakwake m'miyamba yakumwambamwamba - theoretical phonetics ndi theoretical grammar, motsatana. Satsamira ku moyo watsiku ndi tsiku wamavuto a banal ndi milandu. Maere awo ndikufotokozera momwe zimakhalira komanso chifukwa chake zonse zomwe zilipo mchilankhulochi zidachitika. Ndipo, munthawi yomweyo, mutu wamaphunziro a ophunzira ambiri azachilankhulo. Leoreology yopeka kulibe.
11. Wasayansi wamkulu waku Russia Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov sanangopanga zinthu zachilengedwe zokha. Anadziwonetsanso m'zilankhulo. Makamaka, mu "galamala yaku Russia" anali woyamba wazilankhulo kuti adziwe za jenda mchilankhulo cha Chirasha. Chizolowezi chonsecho chinali choti zinthu zopanda moyo zimapangidwa ndi mtundu wapakati (ndipo zomwe zinali kupita patsogolo, chifukwa panali amuna ndi akazi 7 mu galamala ya mtundu wa Smotritsa). Lomonosov, yemwe, makamaka, anakana kuyendetsa chilankhulo munjira zofananira, adaganiza kuti kupatsidwa mayina azinthu kwa amuna ndi akazi osakhudzidwa, koma adazindikira zenizeni zomwe zilipo mchilankhulochi.
M.V. Lomonosov adapanga galamala yanzeru kwambiri ku Chirasha
12. Ntchito ya akatswiri azilankhulo zodziwika bwino amafotokozedwa mu dystopia ya George Orwell "1984". Pakati pa mabungwe aboma amdziko lopeka pali dipatimenti yomwe antchito ake masauzande tsiku lililonse amachotsa mawu "osafunikira" mumadikishonale. M'modzi mwa omwe akugwira ntchito mu dipatimentiyi adafotokoza momveka bwino kufunikira kwa ntchito yake poti chilankhulo sichikusowa tanthauzo limodzi la mawu, mwachitsanzo, "chabwino". Chifukwa chiyani zonsezi "zotamandika", "zaulemerero", "zomveka", "zabwino", "zokongola", "zoyenera", ndi zina zambiri, ngati zabwino za chinthu kapena munthu zitha kufotokozedwa m'mawu amodzi "kuphatikiza"? Mphamvu kapena tanthauzo la mkhalidwe ukhoza kutsimikizika popanda kugwiritsa ntchito mawu ngati "opambana" kapena "waluntha" - ingonena kuti "kuphatikiza-kuphatikiza".
1984: Nkhondo ndi mtendere, ufulu ndi ukapolo, ndipo pali mawu ambiri osafunikira mchilankhulochi
13. Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1810, kukambirana kwamphamvu kunachitika m'zilankhulo zaku Russia, ngakhale panali akatswiri azilankhulo panthawiyo. Udindo wawo unaseweredwa ndi olemba. Nikolai Karamzin adayamba kuyambitsa mawu omwe adamupanga mchilankhulo cha ntchito zake, ndikutengera mawu ofananawo kuchokera kuzilankhulo zakunja. Anali Karamzin yemwe adayambitsa mawu oti "coachman" ndi "pavement", "makampani" ndi "human", "first-class" ndi "udindo". Kunyoza kotereku kwachirasha kudakwiyitsa olemba ambiri. Wolemba komanso womenyera ufulu Alexander Shishkov adakhazikitsa gulu lapadera lokana zatsopano, zomwe zimakhudzana ndi wolemba wodalirika ngati Gabriel Derzhavin. Karamzin, nayenso, anathandizidwa ndi Batyushkov, Davydov, Vyazemsky ndi Zhukovsky. Zotsatira za zokambiranazi zikuwonekeratu lero.
Nikolay Karamzin. Ndizovuta kukhulupirira kuti mawu oti "kuyenga" adawoneka mu Chirasha kokha chifukwa cha iye
<14. Wolemba buku lotchuka lotchedwa "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" Vladimir Dal sanali katswiri wazilankhulo kapena mphunzitsi wamabuku mwaukadaulo, ngakhale amaphunzitsa Chirasha ngati wophunzira. Choyamba, Dahl anakhala msitikali wapamadzi, kenako anamaliza digiri ya zamankhwala ku University of Dorpat (tsopano Tartu), adagwira ntchito ngati dotolo, wogwira ntchito m'boma ndipo adapuma pantchito ali ndi zaka 58 zokha. Ntchito yake pa "Explanatory Dictionary" idatenga zaka 53. [caption id = "attachment_5724" align = "aligncenter" width = "618"]
Vladimir Dal anali pantchito pambali pa bedi la Pushkin akumwalira mpaka mphindi yomaliza [/ mawu akuti]
15. Omasulira omwe amamasuliridwa ndi omasulira amakono nthawi zambiri amakhala olakwika ndipo amachititsanso kuseka konse chifukwa womasulira akugwira ntchito molakwika kapena chifukwa alibe mphamvu pakompyuta. Zolakwika zimayambitsidwa ndi mafotokozedwe osavomerezeka a madikishonale amakono. Kupanga madikishonale omwe amafotokoza bwino mawu, matanthauzo ake onse ndi milandu yamagwiritsidwe ndi ntchito yayikulu. Mu 2016, kutulutsa kwachiwiri kwa "Explanatory Combinatorial Dictionary" kudasindikizidwa ku Moscow, momwe mawuwa adafotokozedwera ndi kukwanira kwathunthu. Zotsatira zake, chifukwa cha ntchito ya gulu lalikulu la akatswiri azilankhulo, zinali zotheka kufotokoza mawu 203. Buku lotanthauzira mawu lachifalansa lofananira kwathunthu, lofalitsidwa ku Montreal, limalongosola mawu 500 omwe ali m'mavoliyumu anayi.
Anthu ali ndi mlandu makamaka pazolakwika pakamasulira makina
